1618-48

The devastating Thirty Years War ends an era of wealthy German trading city-states (the Hanse), modestly powerful princely states, a fine German Renaissance, and especially the Reformation. Apart from the Austrian Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, centered in Vienna, Germany becomes a European backwater.

1740-86

During the reign of Frederick II (the Great) Prussia becomes a recognized Great Power, the near equal of the Holy Roman Emperor. With its capital in Berlin, Prussia is a small, tightly governed bureaucratic state with a formidable army.

1794-1815

The intermittent wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon are a time of continuous political, social and intellectual upheaval in Germany. Between 1801 and 1809 Napoleon repeatedly defeats the best forces of Prussia, Austria and other German states. By stages he forces the reorganization of German territories; in 1806 the Holy Roman Empire is dissolved, with an Austrian (Habsburg) Empire created from the Emperor’s own lands. After the utter failure of his invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon is defeated first at Leipzig in Oct. 1813 (remembered in Germany as a people’s war) and then definitively at Waterloo in June 1815.

1807-19

The Prussian Reform Era features efforts to restructure and modernize the Prussian state, led by reforming officials like Stein, Hardenberg, Gneisenau, and Humboldt, and aided by the first evidence of patriotic sentiment in Prussia.

1809-48

During Metternich’s ascendancy as chief minister of the Austrian Emperor, he is always in command of Austria’s foreign policy and sometimes also dominant in its domestic policy.

1815

The treaties of the Congress of Vienna attempt restore pre-war Europe to a great extent (the intention of the guiding spirit, Metternich), but necessarily in greatly changed form. In place of the Holy Roman Empire, a vague German Confederation is created, which can regulate German affairs if (and only if) there is agreement between the two German states that are also Great Powers, namely Austria and Prussia. Such harmony generally holds up to 1848.

1815-19

These are years of popular turmoil and demands for reform in the reconstituted German states, many of which for the first time have constitutions (of a sort) and a degree of public political life. This is the heyday of the radical student fraternities (the Burschenschaften), culminating at the Wartburg festival of 1817; but there are also economic unrest, anti-Semitic riots, and other disturbances. Both the unrest and any tendencies toward reform are ended by the Karlsbad decrees of 1819, promoted by Metternich; these inaugurate a coordinated policy of repression in the German states.

1819

Prussia sponsors a Customs Union (Zollverein), limited at first to Prussia and a few small neighbors but expanding until by the 1850’s it includes nearly all German states. It is a sign of growing interest in economic development in Germany, and also a lever of growing Prussian power vis-a-vis Austria, which is never admitted to membership.

1819-30

This is a repressive and stagnant time in the German states, apart from a stirring of economic initiative in some parts of the country. In South Germany there is some authentic party life and parliamentary debate, but elsewhere political opposition is little visible; however, there is much private liberal discussion and a few radical-democratic underground conspiracies.

1830

Following revolution in Paris in July there is unrest and near-revolution in several parts of Germany. The rulers of Braunschweig, Saxony and Hesse-Kassel are forced to abdicate; these three states and Hanover have to adopt somewhat more liberal constitutions.

1832

A popular festival at Hambach shows wide-spread republican radicalism. This is met in the following year by new repressive legislation, the Six Articles, adopted by the Germanic Confederation at Metternich’s insistence.

1840

King Frederick William IV of Prussia ascends the throne, and his ambiguous, somewhat romantic tendencies set spark dreams of reform among liberals in Prussia and more generally. This event and other factors open the Vormärz: "pre-March", meaning the period leading up to the revolution starting in March 1848). The first half of the decade is marked by rapid economic advances in much of Germany; then prolonged economic depression sets in and intensifies the sense of dissatisfaction

1848

The Revolutions of 1848:  Following revolution in Paris in February, there are popular revolts in Vienna, Berlin and other German cities in March. In May a National Assembly (all-German parliament) meets in Frankfurt, and a Prussian Constituent Assembly (i.e., a parliament meant to draw up a constitution) convenes in Berlin. Liberals and radicals are not able to establish their authority vis-a-vis the princes and monarchs, who retain their thrones (and armies) despite the revolts. In October an Austrian army overthrows the new government in Vienna; in December Prussian troops reoccupy Berlin and dissolve the Constituent Assembly; and in April 1849 the Frankfurt National Assembly (having adopted a national Constitution in March that remains a dead letter) dissolves itself.

1848

In December Prussia’s first constitution goes into force, imposed by decree of the King (to obviate a constitution designed by the Constituent Assembly). After several revisions, this constitution by 1851 is very restricted indeed, featuring the notorious three-class franchise, but it remains in place until the end of the First World War.

1849-50

Austria frustrates the Prussian Union scheme to reorganize the Germanic Confederation so as to give more formal power to Prussia while edging Austria to the periphery of German affairs. This is the start of an aggravated rivalry between the two powers for leadership in Germany.

1849-58

1849-60

This is a time of political repression in Austria accompanied by final attempts (by the ministers Schwarzenberg and Bach) to restructure the Austrian Empire as a centralized modern state. Austria’s defeat in the wars of Italian unification in 1859 makes this policy politically and financially impossible.

1854-56

Austria’s neutrality in the Crimean War isolates her internationally at a critical time.

1858

The ascension of King William I of Prussia (regent from 1858, king from 1861) releases pent-up hopes for reform and results in opposition victories in Prussian elections from 1859 to 1864. The new King proceeds with reforms, but draws the line when parliament asserts some rights of control over the army. The Prussian constitutional crisis ensues.

1859-60

Austria loses her Italian possessions in the wars of Italian Unification and also faces state bankruptcy.

1860-61

In Austria the October Diploma of 1860 and the February Patent of 1861, two successive constitutions, create national parliaments for the first time in the monarchy’s history. Both are rescinded after failing to win the monarchy enough key domestic support.

1862

The Prussian King in desperation appoints Bismarck as Minister-President (prime minister) in the hope he can resolve the constitutional deadlock. Bismarck defies the Prussian parliament and conducts a four-year confrontation with it.

1863

Bismarck solidifies Prussia’s alliance with Russia by cooperating with the Tsarist government during the Polish revolt of this year. Russia accordingly leaves Prussia a free hand in its coming struggle with Austria.

1864

Joint Austro-Prussian war against Denmark to liberate the (German-speaking) territories of Schleswig and Holstein from Danish rule. Denmark is easily defeated, but there is a confused and contentious aftermath between the victors.

1866

The Austro-Prussian War ends suddenly after seven weeks with an overwhelming Prussian victory in the Battle of Königgrätz (or Sadowa), which has the effect of pushing Austria out of German affairs. The South German states (Baden, Wuerttemberg, Bavaria) that were allied with Austria are treated generously. Bismarck capitalizes on war enthusiasm in Prussia by offering a Bill of Indemnity that the Prussian Parliament happily passes, ending its conflict with the Prussian government.

1867

On Prussia’s initiative the Germanic Confederation is replaced with a new structure, the North German Confederation, that excludes Austria (and, for the time being, four considerable South German states). Designed by Bismarck to ensure Prussian dominance in veiled forms, the Confederation greatly resembles a federal state; it is the immediate precursor of and model for the German Empire founded in 1871.

1867

Under irrestible pressure from the Hungarians and the German-Austrian public after the humiliation of Königgrätz, Austria reconstitutes itself into the Dual Monarchy, Austria-Hungary. The new system consists of two kingdoms, each with its own parliamentary system but linked by a common ruler, a single army, and a joint foreign policy.

1870

In the Franco-Prussian War, incited by Bismarck but declared by France, Prussia fights side by side with the South German states, surrounds and defeats the main French forces at Sedan after only six weeks, and occupies much of France. The South German states are now willing to join a united German state. The peace settlement (in 1871) gives the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German Empire.

1871

The foundation of the German Empire is proclaimed in Versailles. The Prussian King becomes Emperor William I of Germany, and the constitution of the North-German Confederation is remodeled into a constitution for the German Empire.